tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-45906784778093544942024-02-19T08:31:20.916+07:00Learn More About IslamKnow More About IslamUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger11125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-36126828921675169842010-04-06T20:06:00.001+07:002010-04-06T20:15:15.093+07:00Science And Islam<span style="font-size: large;"></span><br />
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SCIENCE AND ISLAM <br />
<br />
The concept of _ilm, “science,” has been an important one in the history of Islamicate civilization and has gone a long way to giving this civilization, and all those who participated in it regardless of their ethnic or religious affiliation, a distinctive shape. Mention is frequently made of several sayings (hadith) of the Prophet that state “seek _ilm, even in China.” The Arabic term _ilm (pl. _ulum) refers more broadly to “knowledge” and its antonym is considered to be “ignorance” (jahl). In its various verbal forms, _ilm is found frequently in the Qur_an. At a fairly early date, however, the concept of _ilm was differentiated from that of ma_rifa. The latter refers to a form of knowledge derived from personal experience or intuition, whereas the former is contingent upon the observation and discovery of first principles. This is not to say, however, that all of the primary sources make a sharp distinction between these two modes of knowledge.<br />
<br />
The concept of science in Islam is a vast subject. Historically, Arabs and Persians who were interested in explaining the natural world around them first introduced Greek scientific treatises to the Arabic-speaking world during the eighth century. From the ninth century on, scholars traveled from one end of the empire to the other, carrying books and ideas, there by insuring what some have called the cultural and intellectual unity of the Islamic world. Since this time, countless Muslims from all over the world throughout the course of many centuries have been involved in scientific developments. Yet, almost immediately there is a conceptual and taxonomical difficulty. How exactly is the term “Islamic science” defined? Ostensibly, “science” is a universal term that knows no linguistic or ethnic bounds; yet, the adjective “Islamic” implies a particular language by a definable group of people. Does “Islamic science,” then, refer to a particular “Islamic” take on science? Or, does it refer to science done by individuals who identify themselves as Muslims? This entry assumes the latter assertion. An equally difficult hermeneutical problem presents itself: When Arabic speakers use the term _ilm did they mean by it something similar to what today is called science? Because the Arabic term is not identical to the Western concept of hard science, it is often used in a number of theological and mystical contexts. For instance, early Muslim hadith criticism was known as _ilm al-rijal (lit., “the science of the men” who made up the chain of transmitters, or isnad).<br />
<br />
Despite the employment of the term _ilm there was nothing particularly scientific about it. Likewise, even theology (_ilm al-kalam) was regarded as a science with its own demonstrative method derived from first principles. These principles, however, were not derived from syllogistic reasoning, but the Qur_an. A more recent trend has fundamentalists arguing that the Qur_an predicts many important scientific discoveries, thereby validating the Qur_anic miracle for the believers.<br />
<br />
Premodern Scientific Developments<br />
<br />
A momentous impetus was given to the development of science in the Islamic world with the accession of the Abbasid caliphate to power and the subsequent foundation of Baghdad as its capital in 762. This resulted in a translation movement that saw, by the end of the tenth century, virtually all of the scientific and philosophical secular Greek works that were available in the Late Antique period (fourth to seventh centuries C.E.) translated into Arabic. These works included many diverse topics such as astrology, alchemy, physics, mathematics, medicine, and the various branches of philosophy. The great majority of these texts were translated from Greek into Arabic by way of Syriac. Furthermore, many of the earliest translators were Christians, many of whom were employed in the renowned bayt al-hikma (“House of Wisdom”). This functioned as the official institute and library for translation and research. The caliph al-Ma_mun (d. 833) sent emissaries throughout the Mediterranean world to seek out and purchase books on “ancient learning,” which were subsequently brought back to Baghdad and translated into Arabic by a panel of scholars. The result was an impressive official library that included many of the most important scientific and philosophical works produced in the ancient world. These works would form the foundation for medieval science, not only in the Islamic world, but also subsequently in the Christian world.<br />
<br />
The earliest Greek works translated into Arabic were often made for purely pragmatic reasons. This is why treatises devoted to astrology, mathematics, and alchemy represent some of the earliest scientific works in Arabic. A useful list of the treatises translated into Arabic and when and by whom can be found in the account given by the biographer of Islamic writings, Ibn al-Nadim (d. 995). A common, though incorrect, assumption has it that the Greeks invented the sciences, the Arabs rescued them from disappearing in the “Dark Ages,” and subsequently passed them untouched and uncommented upon to the Renaissance period. This ignores the fact that many people living in the Islamic world wrote commentaries to the works of important individuals such as Aristotle, Galen, and Ptolemy. The genre of the commentary was not a slavish recapitulation of a text, but often a creative way of writing about science and philosophy in the medieval period. Rather than regard commentaries as uncreative, they often allowed scholars to think about scientific matters in such a way that they could validate their claims by putting them in the mouths of ancient sages. In fact, many commentators often used ancient authors to argue the very opposite of what these ancient authors had intended in the first place. So although the Arabs worked within the parameters of science as established by the Greeks, they made many important developments in the Western scientific tradition.<br />
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<br />
Classification of the Sciences<br />
<br />
Many of the medieval philosophers compiled various “lists of the sciences” (ihsa_ _ulum) and “classifications of the sciences” (maratib al-_ulum). One of the most famous examples of this is the Enumeration of the Sciences, by al-Farabi (870–950). In the preface to this work, al-Farabi states that his intention is to give an enumeration of all the sciences of his day and provide descriptions of their themes and subject matter. He divides the sciences into those dealing with (1) language, (2) logic, (3) mathematics, (4) physics and metaphysics, and (5) political science, jurisprudence, and dialectical theology. Other lists were compiled by the Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan al-Safa_), Ibn al-Nadim, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), al-Ghazali, and Ibn Khaldun. Ghazali’s list is interesting in that he divides all of the sciences into those that are either praiseworthy (mahmuda) or blameworthy (madhmuma).<br />
<br />
Such lists, however, are by no means a medieval phenomenon. In 1980 at the Second World Conference on Muslim Education, sponsored by the King _Abd al-_Aziz University in Jiddah and the Quaid-i Azam University in Islamabad, delegates adopted a similar list. The main difference between their enumeration and that of someone like al-Farabi was that theirs begins with the memorization of the Qur_an and ends with the practical sciences.<br />
<br />
Highlights<br />
<br />
Two caveats must be made at the beginning. First, the Muslims did not invent any of the sciences. Rather, as mentioned, they received texts from the Greeks (especially those of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Euclid) and, in the process, adopted and adapted their theories as they saw fit (e.g., in order to reconcile them with monotheistic sensibilities or with new advances made in observation). Second, the term Arabic science might be better than Islamic science, because there was nothing particular religious about science, and many of the scientists spoke Arabic, even though religiously they might have been Christian or Jewish. Muslims made many important innovations in a great majority of the sciences. In astronomy (_ilm al-hay_a; lit. “the science of the figure”), for example, Muslim thinkers made important advancements, following on the heels of Ptolemy, in discerning the laws governing the periodic motions of the celestial bodies. One of the most famous of the Islamic astronomers was al-Battani (Albategnius). He compiled a catalog of the stars for the year 880, in which he determined the various astronomical coefficients with renowned accuracy. He was also responsible for discovering the motion of the solar apsides. In addition, he also wrote an important introductory treatise that was used in European universities until the sixteenth century. Gradually, in order to reconcile perceived observation of the universe, Muslim thinkers, disagreeing with Aristotle, posited the existence of epicycles that revolved not around the earth, but around the various celestial spheres. This movement away from Aristotle greatly bothered the Andalusi thinkers, especially Ibn Bajja and Ibn Rushd (Averroes), who decided to remove the epicycles. This created almost as many problems as it solved. In the thirteenth century, however, at the observatory in Maragha, scientists explained the motions of the heavenly spheres as the combination of uniform circular motions. This is the model that was eventually adopted by European astronomers, such as Copernicus. Mathematics (_ilm al-hisab; lit. “the science of reckoning”) was, according to al-Farabi’s classification, divided into seven branches. Furthermore, he divided mathematics into two types: practical (amali) and theoretical (nazari). The former is concerned with numbers as they pertain to numbered things such as tables or humans. The latter, in contrast, is concerned with numbers in the abstract, including the properties that numbers acquire when related to one another or when combined with or separated from one another. In the tenth century, Nichomachus’s Introduction was translated from Greek into Arabic. This resulted in the acquaintance of mathematics with other subjects, such as geometry, astronomy, and music.<br />
<br />
Another important mathematician, and probably the most important Arab physicist, was Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen; d. 1039). Among other things, he attempted, without success, to regulate the flow of the Nile. He also composed over a hundred different scientific treatises, most devoted to medicine, mathematics, and physics. Furthermore, he was responsible for establishing the theorem of the cotangent, in addition to resolving the problem of optics (the intersection of an equilateral hyperbole with a circle) that still bears his name. In the field of medicine, probably the most important name is Ibn Sina (Avicenna; d. 1037). In his autobiography he informs us that medicine (tibb) was not one of the difficult sciences and he claims to have mastered it by the age of sixteen. Throughout his life he engaged in medical experiments and wrote various treatises on specific topics. He also composed a medical encyclopedia, Qanun fi ’l-Tibb (The canon of medicine), that became the standard textbook on the subject not only in the Islamic world, but also in the West for over five hundred years.<br />
<br />
Mention should also be made of two disciplines that medieval scholars considered to be sciences, but which are not thought of in that way today: astrology and alchemy. Both of these sciences provided important sources for an empirical and experimental approach to nature. Whereas Aristotelianism offered an explanatory framework for understanding the physical world, astrology and astral magic supplemented this by providing explanations (and prognostications) for the phenomena of this world in the heavens. Both astrology and astral magic presupposed a thorough knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. In like manner, alchemy (al-kimiya_) was concerned with the transmutation of base metals into precious ones. Although most often associated with the attempt to “create” gold, many regarded it as an important part of natural philosophy.<br />
<br />
<br />
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Islamic Law<br />
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Science, as is to be expected, was a very malleable term. It referred not only to those disciplines (e.g., physics, mathematics) that today are considered to be the purview of science, but also to other disciplines whose scientific veracity is rather difficult to ascertain. The Muslims had a tendency to consider every potential discipline as a science, and as a result tried to articulate first principles for them. Important in this regard is the science of law or fiqh. For the practitioners of fiqh, known as the fuquha_, the law was a science and consisted of the proper knowledge of the Qur_an and the sunna. In its developed form, the science of Islamic legal theory recognized a variety of sources and methods (usul al-fiqh) by which to derive the law. The first principle was the Qur_an, followed by the sunna which, though second in importance, provided the overwhelming majority of material from which the law was derived. The third principle is consensus (ijma_) of the legal scholars in the name of the entire community.<br />
<br />
The fourth principle is known as human reasoning (qiyas). These four principles became the means whereby legal scholars could, in their opinion, scientifically determine the legal effects of the textual sources of Islam. The supreme Muslim science was considered to be religious law as opposed to theology as it was in the scholastic world. This had important repercussions: Because scholastic theologians also did work on logic and medicine, they contended that God could not do what was logically impossible. Islamic fuquha_, in contrast, were not interested in deducing religious principles from reason or explaining them rationally. Having surveyed some of the major features and trajectories of science within the orbit of Islam, the question arises: Why did Islam not carry out a scientific revolution in the same manner that the Europeans did? After all, Islam practiced the various sciences long before Europe and remained ahead of the Europeans until the thirteenth century.<br />
<br />
The primary difference resides in the fact that, whereas European scholastics succeeded in developing the modern physical sciences, Islam created a metaphysics that was more interested in mysticism. According to the analysis suggested by John Walbridge in The Leaven of the Ancients (2000), this was the result of several features. First, the Muslim philosophers consistently held the position that the world existed without a temporal beginning and were thus more interested in ontological hierarchies than temporal chains of causality. As a result, they tended to speculate about metaphysics and ontology as opposed to the natural sciences. Second, Muslim theologians (mutakallimun) developed an extreme occasionalism that refused to bind God in any way to the<br />
natural order. At its most extreme, even a philosopher such as Ghazali, who believed in the truth of mathematics, argued that God destroyed and created the universe in every instant in accordance with His arbitrary Will. God’s law, in other words, was regarded as totally arbitrary and, thus, the notion of natural law was for the most part foreign to Islam. Third, the discovery of mysticism by the Islamic philosophers (beginning with Ibn al-_Arabi in the thirteenth century) coincided with the almost complete lack of interest in natural philosophy, especially physics and mathematics. <br />
<br />
The end result was that by the thirteenth century, philosophy increasingly was reduced to metaphysics with the primary tools of its discovery being intuition and mystical experience as opposed to deduction and scientific observation. And so it remained until the modern period when Muslims who engage in scientific discovery use, for the most part, models and paradigms developed by Europeans.<br />
<br />
Modern Approaches<br />
<br />
For sake of convenience, there are essentially three main trajectories. The first trajectory is that of the “fundamentalists.” Many think that the Qur_an predicts modern science. This approach is based on the assumption that the Qur_an in its nontechnical language actually refers to modern scientific data (e.g., embryology, geology). This is impossible to verify, yet it is taken by the faithful as proof of the authenticity of their religion. A second attempt to bring science and Islam together is based on, for lack of a better term, apologetics. According to this approach, “Western” science has failed to formulate a vision of truth based on revelation; rather, it relies on the rational and secular principles as handed down by the pagan Greeks. The result is the desacralization of knowledge (cf., Nasr, Qadir).<br />
<br />
Islam, in contrast, presents a sacred worldview and it is the job of “Islamic science” to ascertain this. Proponents of this approach argue that there is such a thing as Islamic science and that it does not subscribe to the theory of evolution. Accordingly, whenever science threatens religion (e.g., evolution), the former must ultimately give way to the latter. Such a dichotomy between “Western” and “Islamic” science is, as should be clear from this entry, based on essentialism and ignores the fact that for much of its history Islamic science was, for all intents and purposes, Western science. The third and final trajectory seems to be the most mainstream; namely, the thousands of Muslim scientists throughout the globe who engage in the ongoing discovery of scientific principles by means of careful and controlled observation.<br />
</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-58539896530026872512010-04-04T13:38:00.003+07:002010-04-04T13:46:04.550+07:00Islam In Baghdad<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSG9AlZwMtJbM100asM2daefUq1UTp62iUaKbZnGMw-b3Es5vAdrvyKAr2wyvl_6Xxkkz0p8JQKOm_yle7AFg7HSXJ6Y5Op7qRHuitza0hFi9o9diJPMYyxeR9RyYvix1xL0xzaVe_EYJ1/s320/baghdad.jpg" width="273" /></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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</style> </div><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">BAGHDAD</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">“Have you seen in all the length and breadth of the earth A city such as Baghdad? Indeed it is paradise on earth.” (al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, in Lassner, Topography, p. 47)</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Thus begins a poem attributed variously to _Umara b. _Aqil al-Khatafi and Mansur al-Namari in praise of Baghdad, the illustrious capital of the Abbasid caliphate in Iraq for close to A bust of Muslim caliph Abu Ja_far al-Mansur, in Baghdad, which he founded. AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS five centuries. The city was founded by the second Abbasid caliph, Abu Ja_far al-Mansur, on the banks of the Tigris River where it most closely approaches the Euphrates. While officially called Dar al-Salam, or the Abode of Peace, which recalls Qur_anic descriptions of Paradise (6:127; 10:25), the name Baghdad itself is reminiscent of a pre-Islamic settlement in the vicinity. </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">However, this metropolis is not to be confused erroneously with the ancient towns of Babylon, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon. Following the turbulence and social upheavals of the Abbasid assumption of power from the Umayyads, al-Mansur sought to move his capital to a more secure location in the East. The proclamation of Abu l-_Abbas as the first Abbasid caliph in 749 C.E. had irrevocably shifted the locus of imperial power away from Damascus, the Umayyad capital, to a series of successive sites in Iraq. Al-Mansur himself was initially based in al-Hashimiyyah, adjacent to Qasr Ibn Hubayra and close to Kufa. The Rawandiyya uprising of 758 C.E., however, soon exposed the location’s vulnerability, and al-Mansur began a thorough investigation of sites from which he could consolidate his rule.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">In accordance with the information gathered from scouts, local inhabitants, and personal observation, the minor village of Baghdad was selected as an ideal location for the future Abbasid capital. The area had much to recommend itself in terms of its central location, fertile lands, temperate climate, ease of receiving provisions via the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, the convening of caravan routes nearby, and the natural defenses provided by the surrounding canals. Construction of the imperial capital began in the year 762 C.E., though work was halted temporarily that same year while al- Mansur suppressed further uprisings emanating from Medina and Basra. </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Over one hundred thousand architects, artisans, and laborers from across the empire were employed in the creation of this city, at tremendous financial expense, over a period of four years. An alternative name for Baghdad, al-Madina al- Mudawwara, or the Round City, reflects the circular layout of al-Mansur’s initial foundation. Baghdad was designed as a series of concentric rings, with the caliphal palace, known as Bab al-Dhahab, or the Golden Gate, and the attached grand congregational mosque located in the center, along with separate structures for the commander of the guard and the chief of police. The caliph was thereby equidistant from all points within the city, as well as surrounded by its considerable fortifications. Only the residences of his younger children, those of his servants and slaves, and various government offices shared access onto this inner circle. Four walkways radiated outward from the central courtyard in the directions of northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest, passing through the inner circle of surrounding structures; then an enclosure wall followed by an interval of space; then a residential area followed by another interval; then a large wall of outer defense, a third interval, a second smaller wall; and finally a deep, wide moat surrounding the entire complex.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The Round City initially retained an austere administrative and military character. On the city’s outskirts, large land grants at varying distances from the capital were given to members of the Abbasid family, the army, and chiefs of the government agencies. In addition to the initial settlers, comprised of those loyal to the caliph and his new regime, large numbers of laborers, artisans, and merchants migrated to Baghdad in pursuit of the largesse showered upon those necessary to sustain the new imperial capital. What quickly grew to be a thriving market within the walls of the Round City was ultimately perceived to be a security threat and, in 773 C.E., was transferred southwest of Baghdad, to al-Karkh. There, the commercial activities of the Abbasid capital flourished, and Baghdad rapidly developed into an economically vibrant metropolis. The main markets of Baghdad were subdivided according to their various specialties which included food, fruit, flowers, textiles, clothes, booksellers, goldsmiths, cobblers, reedweavers, soapmakers, and moneychangers that served the populace and government officials. Baghdad exported textiles and items made of cotton and silk, glazed-ware, oils, swords, leather, and paper, to mention only a few, through both local and international trade. The muhtasib, a government-appointed regulator, ensured the fair practices of the marketplace as well as supervised the public works of proliferating mosques and bathhouses. The opulence and luxury of court life in Baghdad were legendary, and reflected the vast political and economic power of the Abbasid Empire.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The magnanimity of the Abbasid caliphs and the wellplaced inhabitants of Baghdad also extended into encouraging intellectual pursuits, thereby establishing the Abbasid capital as one of the world’s most sophisticated and prestigious centers of learning. Renowned Islamic scholars of diverse geographical and ethnic origins held sessions in the mosques and colleges of cosmopolitan Baghdad, attracting innumerable seekers of legal, philological, and spiritual knowledge. Bookshops and the private homes of individual scholars and high government officials, such as the wazir, also served as venues for intellectual discussion and debate. Inns located near the mosques provided lodging to those who had devoted themselves to scholarly pursuits, and accommodations were later made available within the institutions of the madrasa (legal college) and ribat (Sufi establishment), both of which also offered stipends to affiliated students.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Scientific research in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, medicine, optics, engineering, botany, and pharmacology also prospered within the Abbasid capital. Alongside experimentationand exploration, translation of Hellenic, Indic, and Persian texts received patronage from dignitaries, physicians, and scientists in response to the professional and intellectual demands of an expanding Islamic society. Public libraries, both attached to mosques and as separate institutions, contributed further to the dissemination of knowledge among the populace, while the establishment of hospitals as charitable endowments throughout the city ensured the provision of free medical care to anyone who so required it. Mobile clinics were even dispatched to remote villages on a regular basis, with the aims of offering comprehensive health coverage.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The political fragmentation of the sprawling Abbasid Empire ultimately contributed to a decline in the revenues and hence in the general fortunes of the capital in Baghdad. Increasing civil disturbances in the face of weakened central authority, as well as rife Sunni-Shi_ite conflicts, resulted in the deterioration and destruction of vast segments of the waning metropolis. Nevertheless, Baghdad retained its prestige as the center of the Islamic caliphate and a symbol of Muslim cultural, material, and scholarly achievement. It was therefore with great consternation that news was received of the Mongols’s savage invasion and ravaging of the city in 1258 C.E. Hundreds of thousands of Baghdad’s inhabitants, including the caliph and his family, leading personalities, and scholars were mercilessly put to death, and the great scientific and literary treasures of Baghdad were burned or drowned in the waters of the Tigris.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Thereafter, Baghdad was transformed into a provincial center within the Mongol Empire, under the control of the Ilkhanids until 1339 C.E. and then the Jalayrids until 1410 C.E. The Karakoyunlu Turkomans and the Akkoyunlu Turkomans ruled Baghdad successively, until the city was conquered by Shah Ismail in 1508 C.E. and incorporated into the Safavid Empire. A subsequent Perso-Ottoman struggle for Baghdad and its symbolic sites resulted in Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent’s conquest of the city in 1534 C.E., only to be lost again to the Safavids, and then regained by the Ottoman Sultan Murad IV in 1638 C.E. Baghdad remained the capital of the region’s Ottoman province for nearly three centuries, and was occupied by the British in March 1917, during the course of World War I. In 1921, it became the seat of Faysal b. Husayn’s kingdom under British Mandate and remained the capital of Iraq throughout its successive developments into an independent constitutional monarchy (1930), federated Hashimite monarchy (1958), and then republic (1958).</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-34271828290253057832010-04-03T12:21:00.003+07:002010-04-04T13:47:12.657+07:00The Music Composer<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdif2cShO5IAGl9gg6erjs3NPNIeiUxBErPAbTJodB3MlgmPt97GbWte4j3gQYRSjCBUhtnfMiUNueDOXDZ_wVMg1uPAq-cW59or7E27RIWzk814VPXZgSad7KAcnMRauih_BwhcFnP2hg/s320/Farabi3.jpg" /></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">All this time, we only know that the reliable composer is like Mozart, Bach, or any other composers. Besides, before that Islam has given a genius musicians: Al-Farabi, the real name is Abu Nasr Muhammad Ibnu Muhammad Ibnu Tarkhan Ibnu Uzlaq Al Farabi. He was born in 874 A.D (260H) in Transoxia Wasij located in the Region of Turkey. His father was poor army, but all that did not prevent him to study in Baghdad. Why in Baghdad, this is because in those days all the sciences are gathered in Syria or Iraq. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">After living in Iraq, Al Farabi decided to move to Damascus, before continuing his trip to Halab. While there, he was humble in the palace of Saif al-Daulah with four dirhams a day's salary. This led him to live in a state that completely lacked. Although Al-Farabi was an ascetic, but he was not an expert of Sufism. He is a scientist who was quite famous in that day. He is capable of the various languages. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">If we talk about his expertise in music, his songs leave an impression so directly to the listener, Besides having the ability to play music, he also has created an art that later became the identity of the Arabs, that is a lute music.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">But the ability of Al-Farabi's not just that. He also have a deep knowledge in medicine, science, mathematics, and history. And he is a scientist of philosophy. Moreover, his prowess in Islamic philosophy can overcome other experts such as Al-Kindi and Ibn Rushd. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In the field of music, his largest donation in history is a book containing the teaching and Islamic music theory : Al-Musiqa. Just so you know, this book is still considered to be the most important music books in the field of music worldwide. You see, Al-Farabi is said that first put the basics of musical notes and everything which associated with modern music today. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">As a bona fide scientist, Al-Farabi also shows the trend resulted in several studies in the medical field. Although he is studies in this field does not make it famous, but his views had a substantial contribution to the development of medical science in his day. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Al-Farabi have a very Qanaah (simply) character, not greedy of wealth and the world. He is prefer to concentrating in knowledge than worldly wealth. That is why Al-Farabi living in poverty, and he was died in 950 A.D (339H).</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-78555033954009143412010-04-02T00:44:00.001+07:002010-04-04T13:48:28.100+07:00Islamic Calligraphy<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPzAkDy7d9Wswy5lQk0VvRgeKAKtEh4jG0KOOZrwgWcheRzk3WfGVnqi4jwA4WoHaAlDxIpFoUuMz0TivWZFx-uxGe7Fs_E0sB1ZXLPBXdiU5uY7CRfF4SDCMEsOnFRGu5SK-Jyc22MbB9/s320/klgrfi.jpg" /></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">CALLIGRAPHY<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslims have always deemed calligraphy, the art of beautiful</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">writing, the noblest of the arts. The first chapters of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Qur_an revealed to the prophet Muhammad in the early</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">seventh century (suras 96 and 68) mention the pen and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">writing. Writing in Arabic script soon became a hallmark of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islamic civilization, found on everything from buildings and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">coins to textiles and ceramics, and scribes and calligraphers</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">became the most honored type of artist. We know the names,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and even the biographies, of more calligraphers than any</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">other type of artist. Probably because of the intrinsic link</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">between writing and the revelation, Islamic calligraphy is</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">meant to convey an aura of effortlessness and immutability,and the individual hand and personality are sublimated to</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the overall impression of stateliness and grandeur. In this</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">way Islamic calligraphy differs markedly from other great</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">calligraphic traditions, notably the Chinese, in which the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">written text is meant to impart the personality of the calligrapher</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and recall the moment of its creation. Islamic calligraphy,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">by contrast, is timeless.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The reed pen (</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">qalam</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">) was the writing implement par</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">excellence in Islamic civilization. The brush, used for calligraphy</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">in China and Japan, was reserved for painting in the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islamic lands. In earliest times Muslim calligraphers penned</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">their works on parchment, generally made from the skins of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">sheep and goats, but from the eighth century parchment was</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">gradually replaced by the cheaper and more flexible support</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of paper. From the fourteenth century virtually all calligraphy</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">in the Muslim lands was written on paper. Papermakers</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">developed elaborately decorated papers to complement the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">fine calligraphy, and the colored, marbled, and gold-sprinkled</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">papers used by calligraphers in later periods are some of the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">finest ever made.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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</style> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The Arabic alphabet. Arabic calligraphy is done with a <i>qalam, </i>a type of reed pen, rather than with a brush as in East</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Asia. Islam’s reverence for the written word contributes to</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">calligraphy’s status as the religion’s most honorable art</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">form. © HISTORICAL PICTURE ARCHIVE/CORBIS<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Almost all Islamic calligraphy is written in Arabic script.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The Qur_an was revealed in that language, and the sanctity of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the revelation meant that the script was adopted for many</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">other languages, such as new Persian, Ottoman Turkish, and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Urdu. Unlike many other scripts that have at least twodistinct forms of writing—a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">monumental or printed form in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">which the letters are written separately and a cursive or</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">handwritten form in which they are connected—Arabic has</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">only</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the cursive form, in which some, but not all, letters are</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">connected and assume different forms depending on their</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">position in the word (initial, medial, final, and independent).</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The cursive nature of Arabic script allowed calligraphers</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to develop many different styles of writing, which are usually</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">grouped under two main headings: rectilinear and rounded.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Since the eighteenth century, scholars have often called the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">rectilinear styles “Kufic,” after the city of Kufa in southern</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Iraq, which was an intellectual center in early Islamic times.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">This name is something of a misnomer, for as yet we have no</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">idea which particular rectilinear style this name denoted.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Scholars have proposed various other names to replace </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">kufic,</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">including Old or Early Abbasid style, but these names are not</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">universally accepted, in part because they carry implicit</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">political meanings, and many scholars continue to use the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">term </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">kufic.</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Similarly, scholars often called the rounded styles </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">naskh,</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">from the verb </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">nasakha </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">(to copy). The </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">naskh </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">script is indeed the</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">most common hand used for transcription and the one upon</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">which modern styles of typography are based, but the name is</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">also something of a misnomer, for it refers to only one of a</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">group of six rounded hands that became prominent in later</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islamic times. As with </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">kufic, </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">scholars have proposed several</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">other names to replace </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">naskh, </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">such as new style (often abbreviated</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">N.S.), or new Abbasid style, but these names, too, are</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">not universally accepted.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Medieval sources mention the names of many other</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">calligraphic hands, but so far it has been difficult, even</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">impossible, to match many of these names with distinct styles</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of script. Very few sources describe the characteristics of a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">particular style or give illustrations of particular scripts.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Furthermore, the same names may have been applied to</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">different styles in different places and at different times.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Hence it may never be possible to link the names of specific</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">scripts given in the sources with the many, often fragmentary,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">manuscripts at hand, especially from the early period.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Both the rectilinear and the rounded styles were used for</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">writing from early Islamic times, but in the early period the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">rounded style seems to have been a book hand used for</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">ordinary correspondence, while the rectilinear style was reserved</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">for calligraphy. Although no examples of early calligraphy</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">on parchment can be definitively dated before the late</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">ninth century, the importance of the rectilinear style in early</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islamic times is clear from other media with inscriptions, such</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">as coins, architecture, and monumental epigraphy. The </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Fihrist</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">by Ibn al-Nadim (d. 995) records the names of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">calligraphers</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">who worked in the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, and both</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">coins and the inscriptions on the first example of Islamic</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">architecture, the Dome of the Rock erected in Jerusalem by</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the Umayyad caliph _Abd al-Malik in 692, show that from</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">earliest times Umayyad calligraphers applied such aesthetic</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">principles as balance, symmetry, elongation, and stylization</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to transform ordinary writing into calligraphy.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Calligraphers in early Islamic times regularly used the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">rectilinear styles to transcribe manuscripts of the Qur_an.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Indeed, the rectilinear styles might be deemed Qur_anic</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">hands, for we know only one other manuscript—an unidentified</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">genealogical text in Berlin (Staatsbibliotheque no. 379)—</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">written in a rectilinear script. None of these early manuscripts</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of the Qur_an is signed or dated, and most survive only</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">in fragmentary form, and so scholars are still refining other</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">methods, both paleographic and codicological, to group and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">localize the scripts used in these early parchment manuscripts</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of the Qur_an.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The major change in later Islamic times was the gradual</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">adoption and adaptation of round hands for calligraphy.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">From the ninth century calligraphers transformed the round</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">hands into artistic scripts suitable for transcribing the Qur_an</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and other prestigious texts. The earliest surviving copy of the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Qur_an written in a rounded hand is a small manuscript, nowdispersed but with the largest section preserved in the Chester</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Beatty Library in Dublin (ms. 1417). It bears a note in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Persian saying that the manuscript was corrected by a certain</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Ahmad ibn _Ali ibn Abu ’l-Qasm al-Khayqani in June 905,and it is tacitly accepted that the rounded hand was developed</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">in Iran or nearby Iraq, heartland of the Abbasid caliphate. In</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the ensuing centuries calligraphers continued to develop and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">elaborate the rounded style, and from the fourteenth century</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">virtually all manuscripts of the Qur_an were written in one of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the six round scripts known as the Six Pens (Arabic, </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">al-aqlam</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">al-sitta</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">; Persian, </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">shish qalam</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">). These comprise three pairs of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">majuscule-miniscule hands, </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">thuluth</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">-</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">naskh, muhaqqaq</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">-</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">rayhan,</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">tawqi_</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">-</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">riqa_, </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and calligraphers delighted in juxtaposing</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the different scripts, particularly the larger and smaller variants</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of the same pair.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Various explanations have been proposed for this transformation</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of rounded book hands into proportioned scripts</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">suitable for calligraphing fine manuscripts. These explanations</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">range from the political (e.g., the spread of orthodox</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Sunni Islam) to the sociohistorical (e.g., the new role of the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">chancery scribe as copyist and calligrapher), but perhaps the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">most convincing are the practical. The change from rectilinear</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to rounded script coincided with the change from parchment</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to paper, and the new style of writing might well be</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">connected with a new type of reed pen, a new method of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">sharpening the nib, or a new way that the pen was held, placed</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">on the page, or moved across it. In the same way, the adoption</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of paper engendered the adoption of a new type of black soot</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">ink (</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">midad</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">) that replaced the dark brown, tannin-based ink</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">(</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">hibr</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">) used on parchment.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">From the fourteenth century calligraphers, especially thosein the eastern Islamic lands, developed more stylized forms of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">rounded script. The most distinctive is the hanging script</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">known as </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">nasta_liq, </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">which was particularly suitable for transcribing</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Persian, in which many words end in letters with</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">large bowls, such as </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">ya_ </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">or </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">ta_. </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Persian calligraphers commonly</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">used </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">nasta_liq </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to pen poetic texts, in which the rounded</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">bowls at the end of each hemistich form a visual chain down</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the right side of the columns on a page. They also used</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">nasta_liq </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to pen poetic specimens (</span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">qit_a</span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">). These elaborately</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">planned calligraphic compositions typically contain a Persian</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">quatrain written in colored and gold-dusted inks on fine,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">brightly colored and highly polished paper and set in elaborately</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">decorated borders. The swooping strokes of the letters</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and bowls provide internal rhythm and give structure to the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">composition. In contrast to the anonymous works of the early</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">period, these calligraphic specimens are frequently signed</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and dated, and connoisseurs vied to assemble fine collections,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">which were often mounted in splendid albums.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Calligraphy continues to be an important art form in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">modern times, despite the adoption of the Latin alphabet in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">some countries such as Turkey. Some calligraphers are trying</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to revive the traditional styles, notably the Six Pens, and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">investigate and rediscover traditional techniques and materials.Societies teaching calligraphy flourish. The Anjuman-e</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Khushnvisan-e Iran (Society of Iranian Calligraphers), for</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">example, has branches in all the main cities of the country,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">with thousands of students. Other artists are extending the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">calligraphic tradition to new media, adopting calligraphy in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">new forms, ranging from three-dimensional sculpture to oil</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">painting on canvas. More than any other civilization, Islam</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">values the written word.<o:p></o:p></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-38264325032446744442010-04-01T12:28:00.003+07:002010-04-04T13:49:19.339+07:00The Development Of Science 3 (End)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjt1B-aqpzvwF7tvPoTp2ubjbVCYtfjRk8PKvziRjPX2LF3DW35Y4fdKuA9zaKOLPNK1oN4dlaGhMrVdAcSsidR-JVblHvu6obhWjDyqJWAyVUWd7ORCBGm3pTo3oEOhQ7u5KedgaWZj2ih/s1600/islam.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjt1B-aqpzvwF7tvPoTp2ubjbVCYtfjRk8PKvziRjPX2LF3DW35Y4fdKuA9zaKOLPNK1oN4dlaGhMrVdAcSsidR-JVblHvu6obhWjDyqJWAyVUWd7ORCBGm3pTo3oEOhQ7u5KedgaWZj2ih/s320/islam.jpg" width="263" /></a></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">If we talk about Islamic science and their <a href="http://learn-more-islam.blogspot.com/2010/03/development-of-classical-islamic.html">development</a>, that can not be seperated with the caliph Rashidun concern. They give a big contribution for a science, including Phylosophy and Religion. Below, before we talk about one Muslim scholar who contributed in development of the science, we’ll see a flashback of leadership from the start time of Caliph Abu until the times of Bani Umayyad and leadership Abasiyah.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><span style="font-size: large;">The First Four Caliph History</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1. Caliph Abu Bakr (11-13H/632-634 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2. Caliph Umar Bin Khattab (13-23 H / 634-644 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3. Caliph Utsman Bin Affan (23 -35 H/644-656 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4. Caliph Ali Bin Abu Thalib (35-40 H/ 656-661 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Bani Umayyad AGE (40 H - 132 H)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1. Caliph MUA'WIYAH Ibn Abi Sufyan (40-60 H/661-681 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2. Caliph Yazid Ibn Muawiyah (60 to 63 H/681M-684 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3. Caliph Yazid Ibn Mu'awiyah (63 to 64 H/684-685 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4. Caliph Marwan ibn HAKAM (64 to 65 H/685-686 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">5. Caliph Abdul Malik Ibn Marwan (65 to 86 H/686-707 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">6. Caliph Al-Walid Ibn 'Abd malik (from 86 to 96 H/707-717 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">7. Caliph Sulaiman Ibn 'Abd Malik (96 -99 H/717-720 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">8. Caliph Umar Ibn 'Abd AZIZ (99 - 101H/720 -722 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">9. Caliph Yazid Ibn 'Abd Malik (101 to 105 H/722-726 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">10. Caliph Hisham Ibn 'Abd Malik (105-125 H / 726-746 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">11. Caliph Walid ibn Yazid (125 - 127H/746-748 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">12. Caliph Walid ibn Yazid (127 to 127 H/748 – 748 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">13. Caliph al-Walid ibn IBRAHIM (127 to 127 H)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">14. Caliph Marwan ibn Muhammad (127 to 132 H/748-753 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Bani Abbasid Age</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1. ABU ABBAS AS-SAFFAH (132-136 H/753 -757 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2. ABU JA’FAR AL-MANSHUR (136 – 158 H/757 – 779 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3. AL-MAHDI (158 – 169 H/779-790 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4. MUSA AN-NADI (169 – 170 H/790 – 791 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">5. HARUN AR-RASYID (170 – 193 H/791 – 814 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">6. MUHAMMAD AL-AMIN (193 – 198 H/ 814 -819 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">7. ABDULLAH AL-MAKMUN (198 – 218 H/819 – 839 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">8. AL-MU’TASHIM (218 – 227 H/839 – 848 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">9. HARUN AL-WATSIQ (227 – 232 H/848 – 853 AD)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://learn-more-islam.blogspot.com/2010/03/development-of-science.html">Muslim Scholars</a></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">1. Ibn Musa Al-Kaharizmi (149H/770 -219/840 F) discovering Algorithm And Algebra, living in the </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> days of Bani Al-Ma'mun Abassid (813-833 AD)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">2.Muhammad Zakariya al-Razi (225H/846-304/925 AD) Pioneers Modern medicine, the time of Caliph al-Mansur (754 to 775 AD, and Aaron Ar-Rashid (w.809 AD) to the Caliph al-Ma'mun (813-833 AD)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><span style="font-size: large;">3. Al-Mawardi (386 H/975 ad- 1037 AD) ISLAMIC POLITICAL SCIENTISTS originator. Famous as </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> reviewers Syafii school,</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4. Ibn Haitsam (354 H/965 AD-431/1038 AD) Optical Science inventors.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">5. Jabir Ibn Hayyan (721 to 815 H), Chemical Science inventors</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">6. Ibn Sina (360 H/981 AD), father of modern medicine.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">7. Imam AT-Tabari (225H/839 AD-310H/923 AD) Father of Islamic Modern History.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">8. Abu AL-Bakri Ubay, greatest geographers XI century.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">9. Al-Battani (858 AD) Astronomy, inventor of the earth around the center of the solar system in 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds.</span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-38405021956194978202010-03-31T13:58:00.002+07:002010-04-04T13:50:40.857+07:00Islam In United States<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmrLy6RCcPcyKK5-rCvSumur9kLNsZ1tQGyC4da3fPAnSGaEZh5ep338kEYOpXmlbsG-VS4z6OXzrzwiwOARLcA7veI_r_P_ORWRC9KFJhRlbwIjbt-GZW1yCmbx2p-2DwTtk_PGpq_WKC/s1600/Islam+In+United+States.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmrLy6RCcPcyKK5-rCvSumur9kLNsZ1tQGyC4da3fPAnSGaEZh5ep338kEYOpXmlbsG-VS4z6OXzrzwiwOARLcA7veI_r_P_ORWRC9KFJhRlbwIjbt-GZW1yCmbx2p-2DwTtk_PGpq_WKC/s320/Islam+In+United+States.png" /></a></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Many scholars believe that Islam is the fastest growing religion</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">in the United States. While debates continue about how</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">many Muslims actually live in the country—estimates range</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">from 2 to 8 million persons—there is no dispute over the fact</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">that, due both to conversion and immigration, the number is</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">on the rise. In addition, over twelve hundred mosques now</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">operate across the United States in small towns, suburban</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">locations, and inner cities. American Muslims are like a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">microcosm of the Islamic world; they are diverse by race,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">class, ethnicity, linguistic group, and national origin. AfricanAmericans, perhaps the largest racial or ethnic group of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslims in America, may account for 25 to 40 percent of thetotal population. South Asian Muslims, who trace their roots</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, represent approximately</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">30 percent. The third largest ethnic group of Muslims in the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">United States traces its roots to the Arab world, including</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">countries in both the Middle East and North Africa. This</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">group may total approximately 25 percent of all Muslims in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the United States. The United</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">States is also home to thousandsof Turkish, Iranian, Central Asian, Southeast Asian(especially Malaysian and Indonesian), southeastern European</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">(especially Bosnian), West African, and white and Latino</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">American Muslims.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">In addition to possessing great racial and ethnic diversity,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslims in the United States can be characterized as a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">religiously diverse population as well. Muslims in the United</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">States engage in a wide array of Islamic practices and adhere</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to differing schools of Islamic thought and interpretation.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The vast majority of Muslims, including African Americans,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">identify themselves as Sunni, those who follow the sunna, or</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the traditions of the prophet Muhammad. Some American</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslims also call themselves Sufis, meaning that they seek</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">intimate and closer ties to God by traveling one of the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">mystical paths of Islam. Still others are Shi_ite Muslims,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">persons whose Islamic</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">practice pays special attention to therole of the prophet Muhammad’s family in leading thecommunity of believers. Finally, there are Muslims that donot fit easily under any of these labels, choosing to follow</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">interpretations of Islam that are considered unorthodox, if</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">not heretical by most Muslims—one famous example is the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Nation of Islam led by Minister Louis Farrakhan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">History<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">From the 1600s until the abolition of legal slavery in 1865,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">West African Muslims were brought as slaves to the British</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">North American colonies and later the United States. Perhaps</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">10 percent or more of all slaves in the Americas were</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslim, depending on what times and places are being</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">considered. The number of Muslim slaves in the Americas</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">may have increased even more during the early 1800s, after</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the West African Muslim leader _Uthman dan Fadio (c.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">1754–1817) successfully waged a campaign to Islamize much</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of the region. Though the importation of foreign slaves to the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">United States was officially banned in 1808, many U.S.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">residents violated the law, continuing to import slaves, including</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslims.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Despite the documented presence of Muslim slaves in the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">United States, however, there is little direct evidence that the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">practice of Islam was widespread among slaves in North</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">America. In many cases, slave owners attempted to control</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">slaves more easily by separating families and others who</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">shared ethnic and linguistic ties. Though this assault did not</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">translate into the elimination of African culture, including</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islam, it did often lead to the recasting of certain customs,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">beliefs, and practices into different and often synthetic cultural</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">forms. Some slaves adapted certain Muslim traditions,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">like facing toward Mecca in prayer, to their practice of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Christianity. A few others, like the famous _Umar ibn Sayyid</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">(1770–1864), a North Carolina slave who was literate in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Arabic,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">eventually relinquished key elements of their Muslim</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">identities, publicly converting to Christianity. Tellingly, the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslims about whom the most is known generally lived in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">parts of the American South that had relatively large, isolated</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">slave communities—places like the Sea Islands of Georgia</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">where African Islamic traditions stood a better chance of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">being preserved and passed on.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Thus, by the end of the Civil War, there seem to have</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">been very few practicing Muslims in the United States.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Beginning in the 1870s, however, large numbers of Muslimsonce again came to the shores of the New World. From 1875</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">until the First World War, and then again from the 1920s</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">until the Second World War, tens of thousands of Muslims</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">from the Ottoman Empire, especially Arabs from greater</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Syria, traveled to the United States seeking economic opportunity.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">These Muslims made their homes in places as far flung</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">as Quincy, Massachusetts, and Cedar Rapids, Iowa, whose</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslim community eventually established the Mother Mosque</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of North America, one of the oldest continuously operating</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslim communities in the United States. By 1920, hundreds</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of Muslims from both Anatolia and the Balkans had also</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">created their own chapter of the Red Crescent (the Muslim</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">equivalent of the Red Cross) in Detroit, Michigan, and had</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">obtained a cemetery where fellow Muslims could be buried</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">according to Islamic law. Many of these Muslims became</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">peddlers, grocers, and unskilled laborers. Some eventually</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">found jobs as farmers and factory workers, especially in the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">burgeoning automobile industry in Detroit. These Muslims</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">also practiced various forms of Islam. They not only identified</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">themselves as Sunnis and Shi_a, but also as Druze, a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Syrian and Lebanese group that had long ago separated from</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the Shi_a; as Bektashi Sufis, a community made up mainly of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Albanians; and as Mevlevis, the so-called whirling dervishes.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">During the 1920s and 1930s, the number of Muslims in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the United States also grew as hundreds, if not thousands, of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">African Americans converted, or as some African-American</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslims would put it, reverted to Islam. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">These conversions</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">occurred in the context of the Great Migration, the movement</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of over a million and a half persons from the rural South</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to the more industrialized, urban North throughout the first</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">half of the twentieth century. Attempting to escape racism</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and economic oppression, black migrants often worked and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">lived near immigrant Muslims who were also in search of new</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">opportunities in cities like Detroit; St. Louis, Missouri; Pittsburgh,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Pennsylvania; Newark, New Jersey; and Chicago,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Illinois. African Americans became part of a dynamic cultural</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">milieu, where people from every part of the globe were</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">coming in contact with each other, confronting each other’s</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">differences and exchanging both goods and ideas.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">This period also witnessed one of the first serious Muslim</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">attempts to convert Americans to Islam. The Ahmadiyya</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">movement, considered heretical by many other Muslims, was</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the first Muslim group to mass-distribute English translations</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of the Qur_an, hoping to make the holy book more</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">accessible to those who could not read it in Arabic.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Beginning</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">in the 1920s, they also published the <i>Muslim Sunrise, </i>a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">newspaper that contained information about the movement</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and the rudimentary practices of Sunni Islam, especially daily</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">prayer, almsgiving, and fasting during the month of Ramadan.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The Ahmadiyya focused many of their missionary efforts on</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">African Americans. The head missionary, Muhammad Sadiq,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">promoted Islam as a religion of freedom and equality, often</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">criticizing white Christianity’s links with slavery and the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">destruction of African culture. This was an attractive message</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and hundreds of African Americans, like P. Nathaniel Johnson</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of St. Louis, Missouri, converted to Islam. By the mid-</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">1920s, Johnson had become Shaykh Ahmad Din and was</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">leading a multiracial community of Ahmadiyya Muslims in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the Gateway City.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">African Americans also formed their own Islamic groups</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">during the 1920s and 1930s. Some of these groups, like the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Moorish Science Temple, merely adopted certain Islamic</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">names and symbols to create new African-American Islamic</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">traditions. While many scholars have dated the origins of this</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">movement to 1913, the Federal Bureau of Investigation</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">believed that it began sometime in the 1920s, probably in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Chicago, Illinois. Adapting certain Islamic symbols from the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">black Shriners (an African American fraternal organization</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">that stressed racial cooperation and self-improvement), movement</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">founder Noble Drew Ali (1886–1929) taught that</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">American blacks were actually members of the Moorish</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">nation whose original religion was Islam. His <i>Holy Koran of the</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Moorish Science Temple </span></i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">(1927), a sacred text that had no direct</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">connection to the Qur_an revealed to Muhammad in the<o:p></o:p> seventh century C.E., stressed the importance of morality,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">industry, and group solidarity, and promised that the practice</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of Moorish Science was the key to both earthly and divine</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">salvation for persons of African descent.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Some other groups established by African-American Muslims,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">however, embraced more traditional Islamic practices,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">placing greater emphasis on the five pillars of Islam and on</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the Qur_an. Among these communities, many of which can</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">trace their origins to the 1930s, were the First Cleveland</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Mosque, led by African-American convert Wali Akram (d.1994); the Adenu Allahe Universal Arabic Association in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Buffalo, New York; and Jabul Arabiyya, a Muslim communal</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">farm also located in upstate New York. Most historians have</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">tended to ignore these Sunni African-American Muslim</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">groups, largely because their scholarly gaze has focused on</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the more controversial Nation of Islam.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">In the early 1930s, W. D. Fard, a mysterious immigrant</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">peddler probably of Turkish or Iranian origin, founded the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Nation of Islam in the Detroit metropolitan area. By 1934, he</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">had disappeared, leaving Elijah Poole (1897–1975), an African-</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">American migrant from Georgia, to continue his legacy.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Poole, who had since become Elijah Muhammad, echoed the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">claims of Noble Drew Ali, arguing that Islam was the original</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">religion of the “Blackman.” He said that Fard was God in the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">flesh and that he, Elijah Muhammad, was God’s Messenger,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">sent to resurrect black people from the dead—a teaching that</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">violated many of the most basic tenets of Sunni Islamic</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">raditions. An advocate of black separatism, Elijah Muhammad</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">also emphasized black economic and political independence</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">from whites, the building of moral character, and the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">practice of his unique Islam as solutions to the social and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">economic challenges facing black America. It was not until</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">after the Second World War, however, that his teachings</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">garnered national attention, due largely to the successful</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">missionary work of the articulate, fiery, and handsome Malcolm</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">X (1925–1965), who had become a follower of Elijah</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muhammad while in prison.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">During the postwar period, the face of American Islam</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">was also transformed by a new wave of Muslim immigration</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">from overseas. These Muslims included Palestinians who had</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">become refugees after the creation of the State of Israel in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">1948 and Egyptian citizens who had been dispossessed after</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Jamal _Abd al-Nasser’s revolution in 1952. Sometimes, they</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">made contact with older generations of Muslim immigrants,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">who by this time were beginning to organize national networks</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">like the Federation of Islamic Associations in the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">United States and Canada, a group of more than twenty</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">mosques that began operations in 1952. Other times, however,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">these new immigrants challenged what they saw as the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">unhealthy assimilation of Muslims into American culture.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The most active critics of such behavior were often foreign</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">students in American universities. They had arrived from</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">newly independent countries in Africa and Asia where Islamic</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">activists arose to challenge political regimes that stressed</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">nationalist and socialist rather than Islamic identities. In</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">1963, some of these students formed the Muslim Student</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Association, which would eventually become one of the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">largest Muslim organizations in the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">In fact, it is clear that by the 1960s, a global Islamic revival</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">was underway, and Islam in the United States was deeply</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">affected by it. Many Islamic revivalists stressed the universality</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of Islam, arguing that Muslims should reject divisions</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">along lines of race, language, or nationality and work toward</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">more unity in the Muslim <i>umma</i>, or worldwide community of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">believers. The revival, which also called for a return to strict</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">interpretation of the Qur_an and the hadith, attracted African</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">American Muslims, as well. In places like the Islamic Mission</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">to America in Brooklyn, New York, for example, one could</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">find a multiethnic and multiracial crowd of Muslims engaging</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">the ideas of Egyptian activist Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966),</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">whose writings were being circulated all over the globe.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">During the same period, some African American Muslim</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">revivalists, like members of the Darul Islam movement,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">intentionally separated themselves from mainstream society,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">hoping to recalibrate the rhythms of their lives in accordance</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">with Islamic law. Others, like Malcolm X, embraced Sunni</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">religious practices, but insisted on the need to struggle</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">simultaneously for black political liberation.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">In the meantime, more and more Muslim immigrants</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">were making their homes in the United States. In 1965,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">President Lyndon B. Johnson signed a new immigration</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">law, inviting large numbers of non-Europeans, including</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Asians and Africans, to join the American nation. Many</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of the Muslim immigrants were professionals with South</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Asian roots and became successful doctors, engineers, and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">academicians in cities and towns throughout the United</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">States. Others were from Africa, Europe, other parts of Asia,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">and even Central and South America; they represented over</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">sixty different countries in all. Like Muslim immigrants</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">before them, they subscribed to a variety of Islamic practices.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Among just the Shi_ite immigrants, for example, there were</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">many Twelvers (the largest group of Shi_ite Muslims in the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">world) and Isma_ilis, a smaller community that is itself divided</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">into subgroups.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam, also grew during this</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">period. While there had been Sufis in the United States for</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">some time, a larger number of white Americans began to join</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">various Sufi groups or to follow various Sufi masters in the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">1960s and 1970s. Some of these Sufi converts did not call</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">themselves Muslims and did not practice the five pillars of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islam. Others, however, insisted on adherence to foundational</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islamic practices. By the beginning of the new millennium,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Sufi Islam in the United States was a multiethnic and</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">cross-class phenomenon. And American Muslims were members</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">of a number of different Sufi groups, including the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Tijaniyya,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Naqshbandiyya, Qadiriyya, Bektashis, Shadhiliyya,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Ishraqiyya, Sufi Order International, and numerous independent</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Sufi communities in cities and even small college towns</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">like Carbondale, Illinois. In addition, there were pan-Sufi</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">organizations, like the Sufi Women Organization, which</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">encouraged female Sufis to organize for social change among</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Muslims and society in general.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The post-1965 period of American Islamic history was</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">also shaped by important transformations in African-American</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islam. The number of independent African-American Muslim</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">groups continued to increase as did the number of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">individual converts—especially in prisons, where Muslim</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">individuals and groups, of all ethnic and religious stripes,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">reached out to male inmates. But perhaps the most important</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">event of this period was the death of Elijah Muhammad in</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">1975. After inheriting the leadership of the Nation of Islam,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Wallace D. Muhammad (b. 1933, a.k.a. Warith Deen Muhammad),</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">one of Elijah’s sons, dramatically altered the religious</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">nature of the movement. Rejecting the most controversial</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">elements of his father’s teachings, including those about the</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">divinity of W. D. Fard and the inherent evil of the white race,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Wallace D. Muhammad (now known as W. D. Mohammed)</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">emphasized the importance of Sunni Islamic practices, including</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">daily prayer, the pilgrimage to Mecca, and fasting</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">during Ramadan. He even changed the name of the organization</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">from the Nation of Islam to the World Community of al-</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Islam in the West, and eventually, the American Muslim</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Mission. Though thousands of members followed the leader</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">through what he called the “Second Resurrection,” Minister</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Louis Farrakhan (b. 1933) criticized these deviations from</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Elijah Muhammad’s teachings. By the late 1970s, he had</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">reconstituted a version of the old Nation of Islam, which he</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">still leads as of the time of this writing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-70303004384144603312010-03-30T21:30:00.004+07:002010-04-04T13:51:07.960+07:00The Development Of Science 2<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEin7GfoO63ejRZ1aqAb7wQkE3xwAQ0MIM50LoTiQUzVHIljxxivp09O_re5f7TKolcDmSKxAQitnn3m7ZoqkNxmxmNSme8lNpGyclly5mehEoAAQtwzVgu2rP8g0oUCS6KGXePoIeRuc1P4/s320/science.jpg" /></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">On This time, we will continued the discussion about<a href="http://learn-more-islam.blogspot.com/2010/03/development-of-science.html"> the development of science in Islam</a>. Let's get started.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">● Astronomical tables</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Is a sector of an astronomy science which contains tables that according to arithmetic formula, regarding with special motion every planets and the motions character, fast, slow, straight, back and so on with counting every motion according to applicable rules. These tables follow many basic principles that have been defined concerning the knowledge of the apogee (farthest point from the earth and the circulation of a satellite) and declinations, variety motions and how these things off the other one. Determination of the star's position at a particular time in this area is called tuning tabulation. Scholars who wrote about this, is Al-Battani, Ibn al-Khamad, and Ibn Ishaq scholars who conduct astronomical observations.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">● Phsycs</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">According to Encyclopedia of Islam, Phsycs is a science which discuss about matter, structure of matter, the nature of the various forms of matter, energy and their interactions</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">According to Ibn Khaldun's, Science of Physics is to discuss about the bodies from the standpoint of the movement and still attached to it. </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Phsycs learning about celestial bodies and substances elementary, as well as humans, animals, plants and minerals that are created from it, Subject springs, earthquakes that occur in the earth, also clouds, steam, thunder, lightning, and storms that are in the atmosphere and others. Further study of the body, the soul in various forms in which appeared in humans and animals and plants.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Aristotle's books on Phsycs summarized in Syifa Ibn Sina Works, then Ibn Sina re-summarized in the book An-Najah and Al-Isyarat. Ibn Sina seems like oppose Aristotle and many expressed his own opinions, and Ibn Rushd summarizes too, but does not oppose.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">● Medicine</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Medicine is a branch of physics, thats learn about the human body in terms of health and illness Doctors tried to maintain health and cure diseases with medicines and food.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Galen or galinus are scientists who lived prophet Isa era, his medical works is the parent of medicine. In Islam there are prominent physicians such as al-Razi (Muhammad ibn Zakariya) 251-313H / 866-925 AD, al-Majus (Ali ibn al-Abbas to the 10th century) and Ibn Sina. And from among the most famous Andalusian is Ibn-Zuhr (Abdul Malik ibn Zuhr (avenzoar) d. 557 (1162).</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In Islam there are prominent doctors such as al-Razi (Muhammad ibn Zakariya) 251-313H / 866-925 AD, al-Majus (Ali ibn al-Abbas to the 10th century) and Ibn Sina. And from among the most famous Andalusian is Ibn-Zuhr (Abdul Malik ibn Zuhr (avenzoar) d. 557 (1162) </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">According to Ibn Khaldun Medical, science is not mentioned in the saheeh hadith. because Muhammad was not sent by God to the medical problem, but a problem of religious Shari'a laws. this has occurred when at the time of the Prophet was asked about the marriage process were carved, the prophet (PBUH) said “you know better about the world problems (than me). So none of the statements about the medicine contained in the authentic hadith be expressed as a Shari'a. Which may only if such a medical type used to obtain the blessings and the truth of the bonds of faith, so as to have a large influence benefits. However it was not included humoral medicine, but the result of sincere faith. As occurred in the treatment of abdominal pain with honey. And Allah gives guidance to the right, there is no god but He. </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">● Agriculture Science</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Studying processing, plants, irrigation, land preparation. One of the Greek books, Book called al-Falahah an-Nabathiyyah (nabataean agricultural farm ) ascribed to Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Wasyiyah, contains information on the above, but when it learned only limited, just study of plants, and processing, maintenance because it was the book also comes to magic,and in Islam is forbidden to learn.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;">● Chemistry</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In this science is studying the substance of gold, silver, and about how objects working, the production of gold, silver, they are also investigating waste materials, operational efforts through the transfer of substance from the potentiality to actualities. for example, by the dissolution of bodies (substances) in natural components through sublimation and distillation by the solidification of meltable substance (liquid) through classification (calcification) by pulverisasi hard objects with the help of mortar equipment and the hammers and others. If the black stone, tin and copper was prepared to accept gold or silver is heated in the fire then this substance will turn into pure gold. </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Famous chemist Jabir Bin Hayyan, so they call it "the science of Jabir" and he has written a treatise on the chemical 70. But still, like a crossword puzzle. Eastern philosophers who explained systematical science of chemistry is Ath-Thaghra. Then al-Majrithi Maslamah Scientists from Andalusia who wrote a book about chemistry rutbah al-Hakim.</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-54782476277825443262010-03-30T13:17:00.005+07:002010-04-04T13:51:39.059+07:00The Development Of Science 1<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGlvOeU4DXLIv2zxmVicly-wgIoccp02hd1E9yZ13AHTSl2uTAn5SQAmXZeA0eNHl4jc0yi63b5rV79nrUAF5ruTwwyWvyeWwzi0QcpYxXDgxX0h6y7fXpk4y-27JNMZ3zUsgn9ZXxxukr/s320/ShareIslam_Science_800x600.jpg" /></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>The Development Of Science</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">• Mathematics is a science which obtained from charts and rational, Mathematical concept which have been developed are:</span></div><span style="font-size: large;">A. The logic of the evidence</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">B. Empirical ideas about the exact law and natural law</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">C. Operation concept</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">D. Mathematics moves from statics definition to dynamic</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">• Arithmetics</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">According to Ibn Khaldun, the meaning of Arithmetics is a knowledge about a numbers which combines in a countdown lines and measures line, arithmethics is the first sector in mathematics sciences and absolute which proof in quantifications. The books about this science is written Asy-syifa, An-Najat by Ibn Sina </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">• Algebra</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Algebra is a sector of arithmetics, the first person who wrote this science is Al-Khwarizmi, then Abu Kamil Syuja Ibn Aslam. But The best book is work by Al-Quraishi</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">• Business Arithmetics</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The sector of this science is trade calculate, their applications refer s to the sale and purchase of goods, land measurement, zakat and all of the businnes which related to a numbers. The trade science theory by famous scientist from Andalusia is Az-Zahrawi, Ibn As-Samah, Abu Muslim Ibn Khaldun, and the student Maslamah Al-Majriti</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">• Al-Faraidh</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Al-faraidh is a science to calculate an inheritance, on Malik Madzhab (sect) theres created book by Ibn Tsabit, Summary books by Qadli Abu al-Qasim al- Hufi, Ibnu al-Munmir, al-ju’adi, al-Shuradi. On Syafi’i sect, theres Iman al-Haramain, and also on Hanbali and Hanafi sect.</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">• Measure Science</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Learn about the measurements of quantity, such like a line, plane and geometric objects.The Greeks Books which translated into Arabic by caliph of Abu Ja’far al-manshur is called Eukleides, the summarized that ever created by Ibnu Sina it’s called As-Syifa, and al-Iqtishar by Ibnu as- Shalt</span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">• Geometry</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The sector if land measurements science, cubic term, inch, and other units is a basis of this science.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">• Optics</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Is a sector of Geometry which explained about the causes of mistakes of visual perception. Visual perception happen when occurrence with cone generated by the light, the peak is the point of view and the base is the object if visits, it also explained about the difference in seeing the moon at different laritude (de Slane noted that Ibn Khaldun has said Longitudes). The most well known scholar who discussing this are Ibnu al-Haitsan.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><span style="font-size: large;">• Astronomy</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The study of the constantly movements of stars and planets, astronomy draw conclusions based on geometrical methods of the specific forms and a variety of positions that require the circular movement can be seen with the sense. And astronomy proves that theres precision equinox, center of the earth is not identically to the center of a small circle (epicycle) which brings (the stars) and moving in a big circle. Then through the statical movement of stars, astronomy proves the eighth circle of celestial sphere. Also demonstrated that a single star has a declination. Greek people use a tool they called Astrolabe (i-ness halg). In Islam at the time of al-Ma'mun established a large observational tool known Astrolabe, but not completed then the foundations of this building was gone, and forgotten. </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The best works of this field is Majisti (Al-Magest) authored by Ptolemy (king of Greece), then a leading Muslim philosophers like Ibn Sina summarized in the ash-Syifa, Ibn Rushd (Andalusian philosopher) also summarized the work of Ptolemy. Ibn al-Samah and ibn al-Shalt in the book of al-Iqtishar, Ibn al-Farghani. </span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">To be continued..</span><br />
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</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-61537907768171538552010-03-27T15:04:00.004+07:002010-04-04T13:52:04.265+07:00The Development Of Classical Islamic Science History<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfoJjbSy7z_uKFTFLDjIfVi_ESiBpUrU735GLYOomOa4eCgcaDKJBnJlux8HsePoPA2nM8uwlhyphenhyphenalVFQgq38gB01MZT02sG5T2OCE2q1FRhcMnQqrKQBUEKpRTnzQGcsNlGKDjIM6Lm4bS/s1600/science+in+Islam.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfoJjbSy7z_uKFTFLDjIfVi_ESiBpUrU735GLYOomOa4eCgcaDKJBnJlux8HsePoPA2nM8uwlhyphenhyphenalVFQgq38gB01MZT02sG5T2OCE2q1FRhcMnQqrKQBUEKpRTnzQGcsNlGKDjIM6Lm4bS/s320/science+in+Islam.jpg" /></a></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">According to Ibn Khaldun, the meaning of history is one of knowledge sector which learned by various nation and generations widely. In natural History, contained terms of observation and seeking the truth. In Depth information about the cause and etymology of object form then about a knowledge of substantion, essention, and the causes of the incident. A History make us understand about everything and the origin of the nations, a history can make us know about biography, historical trace, the wisdom of early leaders. Then we get a perfect methods to solve a problems about religion and the world</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The history of Islam proofed that muslim scholars give a big contribution in science world, although they are not famous like a western scientist. In the middle age of muslims scientist such as Ibn Sina with his famous book called Qanun fi attib (the Canon) it's the main inspirator of medical science western revival, Till now avicenna alias of Ibn Sina (750-1450 AD) still phenomenal. In the internet we can find a site about a live and his idea. Besides that, in Islam we know many finders from Muslim, such as gravity finder-Al Biruni, the father of political sosiology-Ibn Khaldun, science of chemistry finder-Jabbir Ibn Hayyan, the father of Parasitology science and Tracheotomy pioneer, Compass and navigator finder, The Father of Algebra and Geography-Al khawarizm, The Father of Surgery and Hemophilia finder, Technique of photography, Optics, Solar energy finder-Ibn Haitam, Histiology pioneers-Ibn Rusyd, discoverer of blood circulation and lungs-Ibn Nafis. But they are rarely mentioned, if we asked to student “Who is the finder of blood circulation?”, they will answer “William Harvey”</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Study it's a must for every muslims, according to Al-Qoran, whoever high in knowledge, God (Allah) will placing him to the highest paradise. When Allah teaching Adam about the names of all an objects in the world, Allah commanded angel (malaikah) to prostate to Adam (the prophet), At the day of tomorrow, will weighed between “clergy ink” and shahid blood, and a “clergy ink” is heavier than shahid blood.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In a phase nobel history since 100 years ago, that muslims just get a four nobel, such as:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">1.The Egypt President: Anwar Sadat in 1978 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">2.Egyptian Literature: Nahgib Mahfudz in 1988</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">3.Abdus Salam</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">4.Egyptian Scientist: Ahmad Zuaeli</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Anwar and Naghib receive a nobel of literature and peace, Abdus Salam get a Phsycs nobel, then Ahmad Zuaeli get a chemistry nobel.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Nobel is awards which initiated by Alfred Nobel (1833-1896), since 1901 the nobel it's for five science, such as chemistry, phsycs, literature, economics, and peace. A scientist who receive this nobel is the most influental people in science world.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Before we talk about Muslim scientist, t's good we know about what the breakthrough since caliph Rashidun era, Bani Umayyad and Abassid. Talk about Muslim scholars, it's related to the leader, a leaders and caliph is who facilitated science development, if a leader realize that knowledge its most important, then a knowledge will developing. Recorded, caliph of Harun Ar-Rasyid, Al-Makmun, they are from bani Umayyad whom give a big contribution in science development</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Harun Al-Rasyid are one of the caliphs who exploited national treasure to built a hospital, medical institution, in thas periods muslim only have 800 doctor. Caliph Harun Al-Rasyid built a library called Khizanat al-Hikmat, and in Al-Makmun ages the names changed to Baynt al-Hikmat (9 B.C). In Al-Makmun ages, this caliph employing Muhammad Ibn-Musa Al-khawarijmi in Algebra and Astronomyto managed Baynt al Hikmah (a big library), Baynt al Hikmah is the place for translation Phylosophy books author by Galen, Aristotle and the Pleteau, in this place we can found an observatorium to studying Astronomy.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The top of Bani Abbas government it's happen at the age of caliph Harun Al-Rasyid and his son caliph Al-Makmun. This age called Golden Age Of Islam. In 800s Baghdad become a Metropolitan City and the main City of Islam, an EconomicTrade Center, Political Center, and the number of population reaching more than one Million people. As the great King in that periods, only Great Karel (742-814 B.C) who can be his rival.</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-6436805376329347582010-03-26T13:27:00.001+07:002010-04-04T13:52:27.695+07:00Islam In New Zealand<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-AY3epblnX4btZKMZ2QsFKo_a4vo4Y50cJLsm-Hf5nJtw838dQIkuSruVU36xJfCtFWlomz6peK1l7yD9LdERmF9Tqw6nK8BSh4mZhAKT1S8LknddBn68NHGeGeWrTrmPD5r2q44XvSjo/s1600/snowy_mosque.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-AY3epblnX4btZKMZ2QsFKo_a4vo4Y50cJLsm-Hf5nJtw838dQIkuSruVU36xJfCtFWlomz6peK1l7yD9LdERmF9Tqw6nK8BSh4mZhAKT1S8LknddBn68NHGeGeWrTrmPD5r2q44XvSjo/s320/snowy_mosque.jpg" width="320" /></a></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i>In the Picture above we can see the snowy mosque called An-nur (an-noor : a light) built by New Zealand Muslims. as we known, one of the Muslim must worship is shola Jum'ah (Friday prayer), but in Wellington city take a place for friday prayer in Federation Building with 600 people of muslims. In south of New Zealand, a Muslims live at Christchurch and Dunedin city then they're done build a mosque in 1985.</i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Actually, the religion of Islam In New Zealand was born since 139 years ago which brought by gold diggers from China, they are give a big contribution of New Zealand development although they're live under European race management.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">New Zealand located in south east of Australia, occupied by Maori tribes just like Aborigin tribes in Australia. The migrant from UK is agree to seperated from Australia, but not get out from United Kindom. Now the queen became a symbol of the state with prime minister government system like Australia and Canada.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The most of Chinesse gold diggers labor who embracing Islam are working at Dunstan, Otago Gold Mine. They are deliberate work at New Zealand from China by European because they're known as the hard worker and cheap. Importing labor between Countries now changes from the days of Colonialism to imperialism in liberalism cover.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Islam come to New Zealand may bring a blessing under the mining exploration by UK slavery massiv. Chinesse Muslim labor not only work for mining, but they're spread the religion of Islam in colonialism ground, this is a blessing.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">The History how Islam is born in this country it's just like in Java Indonesia. In 1900s 30 years after Muslims Ethnic from China comes, then Muslim from Gujaraties comes before they go to New Zealand. At the same times, the conflict happened in East Turkey has opened the opportunities for Uighur Muslims to emigrate to New Zealand, like what their precursor do because of exploration by English people.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Three Gujarati Muslim families come from India to New Zealand, and besides come from an 60 European emigrants. After that Gujarati Muslims and East European Muslim make a cooperation and building Islamic centre. In 1990s, New Zealand Government has open the gates for emigrants by war. They are derived from Somalia, Bosnia, Afghanistan, Cosovo and Iraq.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">In 2009, population of muslims in New Zealand only 40.000 people from many ethnics, such like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, India Fiji, Arabs, Malaysia and Indonesia. The others like East European, Turkey and Africa. Because of many ethnic in this country, at last they are seperated, for example: Indian ethnics make an organization called Anjuman Himayat Islam Organization just like the other. So that Saudi Arabia delegation had recommend them to be the one united.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">After we read all of the information above, this is a proof that Islam keep on growing, Islam is the peace religion and can be hold on tight.</span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4590678477809354494.post-62978038969161536892010-03-25T22:04:00.001+07:002010-04-04T13:53:07.746+07:00Art In Islam<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9F0cXaDLWQ5SbamCLHZ4vGPSWA8q-GzD_TO-r-SpeOD3KZvWYPKVstOyPkLsEFwbHBovWvP0oQJobEhxTpacVN1AbMwFf48SIUp7zEYiT9liqtIqPKhGL6VtBK2EmSFdaLGXP2F3ueMdv/s320/arabianmusic3.jpg" /></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">In phase of history, we can say that the people always ask about what a meaning of art form. The philosophers, since Greece age until now has provided various definition of what is an art, in this time we try to explain one of many definition that we can take.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Van Hoeve in Encyclopedia page 3080 and 3081 explain about the definition of arts, an arts it's a beautiful sense in a human soul to communicate what their feelings that can be catch by sense of hearing (sing), vision (painting), and motion (dancing or drama)</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Music is a form of arts which related with instruments and rhythm. This arts form can't be seperated with a methods how to create some note. Besides that, music arts divided into a two kind such as vocals music (singing) and instrumentalia.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Music can be combined between an arts of instrumentalia and vocal musics (read:singing). Instrumentalia is sound arts that can be played with instruments, but the vocals music is an toning the rhyme only with voice/vocals without music instruments.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Music In Islam History</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Generally, Arabian are music talented especially vocals (sing) music. In Hijaaz we can see people played music with flute, tambourine, lute, drum and others, thats called IQA Musics</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">After arabs embracing Islam, their music talent is more growing with new soul and spirit. When the Prophet (PBUH) alive and Hijaaz became a political center, the music development not to be reduce.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">In many Hadeeth book we can find a source about music in an early of Islam ages, for examples, in hadeeth Imam Ahmad narrator by 'A'isha ra (See Sahih Bukhari Hadith No. 5162, TARTĪB Musnad Imam Ahmad, Volume XVI, pp. 213. See also: Ash-Syaukani, Nail-UL-AUTHĀR Volume VI, pp. 187): </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">(أَنَّهَا زَفَّتِ امْرَأَةً إِلى رَجُلٍ مِنَ الأَنْصَارِ فَقَالَ النَّبِيُّ (ص): يَا عَائِشَةُ مَا كَانَ مَعَكُمْ مِنْ لَهْوٍ فَإِنَّ الأَنْصَارَ يُعْجِبُهُمُ اللَّهْوُ </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">mean: </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">“he (the prophet) ever marry off between a women and a man from anshar, the prophet (PBUH) said: 'O A'isyah is there no show (singing perfomance)? Actually anshar people love the show'”</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Music Theory Author</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">1.Ibn Misjah (d. 705 AD).</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2.Yunus ibn Sulaiman al-Khatib (d. 785 AD). He is the first author of music in Islam. His musical books have very high value, so that many authors from European refer to him. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3.Khalil ibn Ahmad (d. 791 AD). He is a writer of notes and rhythms theory. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4.Ishak bin Ibrahim al-Mausully (d. 850 AD). He is a writer of music book titled “Kitab-ul-ALHAN WAL-ANGHĀM (Not Books and Rhythm)”. He is well known as IMAM-UL-MUGHANNIYĪN (King Singer). </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Music Education In Islamic States</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Besides the creation many music books at the end of the Umayyad Daula. At the time, Caliphs and other officials give a big concern in the development of music education. (See Prof.. Hasmy A., History of Islamic culture, pp. 320-321). </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Many music schools founded in Islamic countries in various cities and regions, there is intermediate and high level schools. Sa'id 'Abd-ul-Mu'min (d. 1294 AD) is the one who success established a music school. One of the reason why in the Daula 'Abbasids founded many music school that is because requirements to be able to work in the palace and tycoon was able to sing and play music</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">This is a list name of male and female singers:</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Male singers:</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. Ma'bad.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">2. Al-Kharīd.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">3. Two brothers Hakam and 'Umar al-Wady.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">4. Fulaih ibn Abi 'Aura,</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">5. Siyāth.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">6. Nasyīth.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">7. Ibrahim al-Mausully and his son Isaac al-Mausully.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Female singers:</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. Neam (Caliph Ma'mun palace singer).</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">2. Bazel and substance-ul-Khal (Caliph Harun al-Rashid palace singer).</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">3. Basbas (Caliph al-Mahdi palace singer).</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">4. Habhabah (Caliph Yazid I favourite singer), and</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">5. Sallamah (Khlīfah Yazid II palace singer). </span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0